Motile Sperm Domain Containing Protein 2 and Cancer

Abstract

Disclosed herein are methods of treating, reducing the incidence of, or preventing one or more activities in or of a cancer cell, methods of treating, reducing the incidence of, or preventing migration or metastasis of a cancer cell, methods of treating, reducing the incidence of, or preventing a cancer by reducing tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) or their migration, and methods of treating, reducing the incidence of, or preventing a cancer (including metastatic cancer), for example, with an inhibitor of Motile Sperm Domain containing Protein 2 (MOSPD2). Also disclosed are inhibitors of MOSPD2 (e.g., anti-MOSPD2 antibodies or antigen binding fragments thereof) and pharmaceutical compositions containing MOSPD2 inhibitors. Also disclosed are methods for the prediction, diagnosis, or prognosis of cancer, cancer metastasis, tumor progression, or tumor invasiveness in a subject.

What is claimed is: 
     
         1 . A method of treating or preventing metastasis of a cancer cell, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of an inhibitor of Motile Sperm Domain containing Protein 2 (MOSPD2) expressed by the cancer cell. 
     
     
         2 . A method of inhibiting or preventing one or more activities in or of a cancer cell, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of an inhibitor of MOSPD2 expressed by the cancer cell, wherein the one or more activities is one or more of: cancer cell migration, monocyte migration associated with tumor growth, a chemokine signaling pathway, a growth factor signaling pathway, EGF Receptor phosphorylation, ERK phosphorylation, AKT phosphorylation, and FAK phosphorylation. 
     
     
         3 . A method of treating or preventing a cancer, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of an inhibitor of MOSPD2 expressed by circulating monocytes or tumor associated macrophages to reduce the number of tumor associated macrophages near or within the cancer mass or the migration of tumor associated macrophages. 
     
     
         4 . A method of treating or preventing a cancer, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of an inhibitor of MOSPD2 expressed by the cancer cells. 
     
     
         5 . The method of  claim 4 , further comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of an anticancer drug. 
     
     
         6 . A method of treating or preventing a metastatic cancer, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of an anticancer drug and an inhibitor of MOSPD2 expressed by the metastatic cancer cells. 
     
     
         7 . A method of treating or preventing metastasis of a cancer cell, comprising contacting a cancer cell with an effective amount of an inhibitor of MOSPD2 expressed by the cancer cell. 
     
     
         8 . A method of inhibiting or preventing one or more activities in or of a cancer cell, comprising contacting the cancer cell with an effective amount of an inhibitor of MOSPD2 expressed by the cancer cell, wherein the one or more activities is one or more of: MOSPD2 expression, cancer cell migration, a chemokine signaling pathway, a growth factor signaling pathway, EGF Receptor phosphorylation, ERK phosphorylation, AKT phosphorylation, and FAK phosphorylation. 
     
     
         9 . A method of treating or preventing a cancer, comprising contacting circulating monocytes or tumor associated macrophages with an effective amount of an inhibitor of MOSPD2 expressed by the circulating monocytes or tumor associated macrophages to reduce the number of tumor associated macrophages near or within the cancer mass or migration of tumor associated macrophages. 
     
     
         10 . A method of treating or preventing a cancer, comprising contacting cancer cells with a therapeutically effective amount of an inhibitor of MOSPD2 expressed by the cancer cells. 
     
     
         11 . The method of  claim 10 , further comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of another anticancer drug. 
     
     
         12 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 11 , wherein the inhibitor is a polypeptide, DNA, or RNA. 
     
     
         13 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 11 , wherein the inhibitor is (i) an isolated binding molecule that specifically binds to a MOSPD2 polypeptide, (ii) an isolated binding molecule that specifically binds to a ligand of a MOSPD2 polypeptide, (iii) an antisera raised against a MOSPD2 polypeptide, (iv) a soluble MOSPD2 polypeptide, or (v) a soluble MOSPD2 polypeptide comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of an extracellular domain of a MOSPD2 polypeptide. 
     
     
         14 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 11 , wherein the inhibitor is an antibody that specifically binds to a MOSPD2 polypeptide. 
     
     
         15 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 11 , wherein the inhibitor is an antigen binding fragment of an antibody that specifically binds to a MOSPD2 polypeptide. 
     
     
         16 . The method of  claim 14 , wherein the antibody is a polyclonal, monoclonal, murine, human, humanized, or chimeric antibody. 
     
     
         17 . The method of  claim 15 , wherein the antigen binding fragment is a Fab, Fab′, F(ab′) 2 , Fv, scFv, sdFv fragment, VH domain, or VL domain. 
     
     
         18 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 11 , wherein the inhibitor is an RNAi, miRNA, siRNA, shRNA, an antisense RNA, an antisense DNA, a decoy molecule, a decoy DNA, a double-stranded DNA, a single-stranded DNA, a complexed DNA, an encapsulated DNA, a viral DNA, a plasmid DNA, a naked RNA, an encapsulated RNA, a viral RNA, a double-stranded RNA, a molecule capable of generating RNA interference, or combinations thereof, that hybridizes to a nucleotide sequence encoding a MOSPD2 polypeptide under a stringent condition, or a gene editing system. 
     
     
         19 . The method of any one of  claims 12 - 17 , wherein the MOSPD2 polypeptide has a sequence at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs:1-4. 
     
     
         20 . The method of any one of  claims 12 - 17 , wherein the MOSPD2 polypeptide is encoded by a sequence at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs:5-8. 
     
     
         21 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 11 , wherein the MOSPD2 inhibitor is an oxidized phospholipid having a structure according to Formula I: 
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
         or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate or a solvate thereof, 
         wherein: 
         n is an integer from 1 to 6, wherein when n is 1, Cn, Bn, Rn, and Y are absent, and C 1  is attached to R′n; 
         each of B 1 , B 2 , . . . Bn−1 and Bn is independently selected from the group consisting of oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus and silicon, whereby each of said nitrogen, phosphorus and silicon is optionally substituted by one substituent selected from the group consisting of alkyl, halo, cycloalkyl, aryl, hydroxy, thiohydroxy, alkoxy, aryloxy, thioaryloxy, thioalkoxy and oxo; 
         each of A 1 , A 2 , . . . An−1 and An is independently selected from the group consisting of CR″R′″, C═O and C═S, 
         Y is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, acyl, alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, carboxy, saccharide, phosphoric acid, phosphoryl choline, phosphoryl ethanolamine, phosphoryl serine, phosphoryl cardiolipin, phosphoryl inositol, ethylphosphocholine, phosphorylmethanol, phosphorylethanol, phosphorylpropanol, phosphorylbutanol, phosphorylethanolamine-N-lactose, phosphoethanolamine-N-glutaric acid, phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(propylene glycol)], phosphoinositol-4-phosphate, phosphoinositol-4,5-biphosphonate, phosphoinositol-4,5-bisphosphate, pyrophosphate, phosphoethanolamine-diethylenetriamine-pentaacetate, dinitrophenyl-phosphoethanolamine, phosphoglycerol and a moiety having the general formula: 
       
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
         wherein: 
         each of B′ and B″ is independently selected from the group consisting of sulfur and oxygen; and 
         each of D′ and D″ is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, amino substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, phosphonate and thiophosphonate; and 
         each of X 1 , X 2 , . . . Xn−1 is independently a saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon having the general Formula II: 
       
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
         wherein m is an integer from 1 to 26; and 
         Z is selected from the group consisting of:
 H, 
 
       
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
       
       and —OR″,
 wherein W is selected from the group consisting of oxygen and sulfur; 
 wherein at least one of X 1 , X 2 , . . . Xn−1 comprises a Z other than hydrogen, 
 and wherein: 
 each of R 1 , R′ 1 , R 2 , . . . Rn−1, Rn, R′n, each of R″ and R′″ and each of Ra, R′a, Rb, R′b, . . . Rm−1, R′m−1, Rm and R′m is independently selected from the group consisting of a bond, hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, halo, trihalomethyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, aryloxy, thiohydroxy, thioalkoxy, thioaryloxy, phosphonate, phosphate, phosphinyl, sulfonyl, sulfinyl, sulfonamide, amide, carbonyl, thiocarbonyl, C-carboxy, O-carboxy, C-carbamate, N-carbamate, C-thiocarboxy, S-thiocarboxy and amino, or, alternatively, at least two of R 1 , R′ 1 , R2, . . . Rn−1, Rn and R′n and/or at least two of Ra, R′a, Rb, R′b, . . . Rm−1, R′m−1, Rm and R′m form at least one four-, five- or six-membered aromatic, heteroaromatic, alicyclic or heteroalicyclic ring, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate or a solvate thereof. 
 
     
     
         22 . The method of  claim 21 , wherein the oxidized phospholipid has a structure according to Formula III: 
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
         or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate or solvate thereof. 
         wherein n is an integer selected from 1 to 4; 
         B 1 , each B 2 , and B 3  are independently selected from the group consisting of oxygen, sulfur, and NR 4 , wherein R 4  is selected from hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, and acyl; 
         A 1  and each A 2  are independently selected from the group consisting of CR e R ee , CR e ═CR ee , C═O and C═S, wherein R e  and R ee  are independently selected from hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl; 
         Y is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, acyl, alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, carboxy, saccharide, phosphoric acid, phosphoryl choline, phosphoryl ethanolamine, phosphoryl serine, phosphoryl cardiolipin, phosphoryl inositol, ethylphosphocholine, phosphorylmethanol, phosphorylethanol, phosphorylpropanol, phosphorylbutanol, phosphorylethanolamine-N-lactose, phosphoethanolamine-N-glutaric acid, phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(propylene glycol)], phosphoinositol-4-phosphate, phosphoinositol-4,5-bisphosphate, pyrophosphate, phosphoethanolamine-diethylenetriamine-pentaacetate, dinitrophenyl-phosphoethanolamine, phosphoglycerol, and a moiety having the general formula: 
       
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
       
       wherein: each of B and B a  is independently selected from the group consisting of sulfur and oxygen; and D and D a  are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, aminoalkyl, cycloalkyl, phosphonate and thiophosphonate;
 X 1  and each X 2  are independently a saturated or unsaturated, linear or branched hydrocarbon, wherein at least one of X 1  and X 2  is substituted with an oxidized moiety Z selected from the group consisting of: 
 
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
       
       wherein W is oxygen or sulfur; and R d  and R dd  are independently selected from hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl;
 R 1 , R 1a , each R 2 , R 3 , and R 3a  are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, halo, trihalomethyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, aryloxy, thiohydroxy, thioalkoxy, thioaryloxy, phosphonate, phosphate, phosphinyl, sulfonyl, sulfinyl, sulfonamide, amide, carbonyl, thiocarbonyl, C-carboxy, O-carboxy, C-carbamate, N-carbamate, C-thiocarboxy, S-thiocarboxy and amino, wherein at least two of R 1 , R 1a , R 2 , R 3  and R 3a  are optionally joined to form a four-, five- or six-membered aromatic, heteroaromatic, alicyclic or heteroalicyclic ring. 
 
     
     
         23 . The method of  claim 22 , wherein the oxidized phospholipid has a structure according to Formula III, and wherein X 1  and each X 2  in Formula III independently have the general Formula IV: 
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
         wherein m is an integer selected from 1 to 26; 
         Z is selected from the group consisting of: 
         H, 
       
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
       
       and OH;
 wherein W is oxygen or sulfur; and R d  and R dd  are independently selected from hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl, and wherein at least one of X 1  and X 2  comprises a Z other than hydrogen; and 
 R a , R aa , each R b , each R bb , R c  and R cc  are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, halo, trihalomethyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, aryloxy, thiohydroxy, thioalkoxy, thioaryloxy, phosphonate, phosphate, phosphinyl, sulfonyl, sulfinyl, sulfonamide, amide, carbonyl, thiocarbonyl, C-carboxy, O-carboxy, C-carbamate, N-carbamate, C-thiocarboxy, S-thiocarboxy and amino, wherein at least two of R a , R aa , R b , R bb , R c , and R cc  are optionally joined to form a four-, five- or six-membered aromatic, heteroaromatic, alicyclic or heteroalicyclic ring. 
 
     
     
         24 . The method of any one of  claims 21 - 23 , wherein n in Formula I is 3 or n in Formula III is 1. 
     
     
         25 . The method of any one of  claims 21 - 24 , wherein Y is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, acyl, alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, carboxy, saccharide, phosphoric acid, phosphoryl choline, phosphoryl ethanolamine, phosphoryl serine, phosphoryl cardiolipin, phosphoryl inositol, ethylphosphocholine, phosphorylmethanol, phosphorylethanol, phosphorylpropanol, phosphorylbutanol, phosphorylethanolamine-N-lactose, phosphoethanolamine-N-glutaric acid, phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(propylene glycol)], phosphoinositol-4-phosphate, phosphoinositol-4,5-bisphosphate, pyrophosphate, phosphoethanolamine-diethylenetriamine-pentaacetate, dinitrophenyl-phosphoethanolamine, and phosphoglycerol. 
     
     
         26 . The method of any one of  claims 21 - 25 , wherein Y is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, phosphoryl choline, and phosphoryl ethanolamine. 
     
     
         27 . The method of any one of  claims 21 - 26 , wherein each of B 1 , B 2 , and B 3  is oxygen. 
     
     
         28 . The method of any one of  claims 21 - 27 , wherein Z is 
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
       
       wherein W is oxygen. 
     
     
         29 . The method of  claim 21 , wherein the oxidized phospholipid has a structure according to Formula IIIa: 
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
         or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate or solvate thereof, 
         wherein B 1 , B 2 , and B 3  are independently selected from oxygen and sulfur, 
         A 1  and A 2  are independently selected from the group consisting of CH 2 , CH═CH, C═O and C═S; 
         Y is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, acyl, alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, carboxy, saccharide, phosphoric acid, phosphoryl choline, phosphoryl ethanolamine, phosphoryl serine, phosphoryl cardiolipin, phosphoryl inositol, ethylphosphocholine, phosphorylmethanol, phosphorylethanol, phosphorylpropanol, phosphorylbutanol, phosphorylethanolamine-N-lactose, phosphoethanolamine-N-glutaric acid, phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(propylene glycol)], phosphoinositol-4-phosphate, phosphoinositol-4,5-bisphosphate, pyrophosphate, phosphoethanolamine-diethylenetriamine-pentaacetate, dinitrophenyl-phosphoethanolamine, and phosphoglycerol; 
         R 1 , R 1a , R 2 , R 3 , and R 1a , are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, halo, trihalomethyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, aryloxy, thiohydroxy, thioalkoxy, thioaryloxy, phosphonate, phosphate, phosphinyl, sulfonyl, sulfinyl, sulfonamide, amide, carbonyl, thiocarbonyl, C-carboxy, O-carboxy, C-carbamate, N-carbamate, C-thiocarboxy, S-thiocarboxy and amino, wherein at least two of R 1 , R 1a , R 2 , R 3  and R 3a  are optionally joined to form a four-, five- or six-membered aromatic, heteroaromatic, alicyclic or heteroalicyclic ring, 
         and wherein X 1  and X 2  are independently a saturated or unsaturated, linear or branched hydrocarbon, wherein at least one of X 1  and X 2  is substituted with an oxidized moiety Z having a formula selected from: 
       
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
         wherein W is oxygen or sulfur; and R d  and R dd  are independently selected from hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl. 
       
     
     
         30 . The method of  claim 29 , wherein R 1 , R 1a , R 2 , R 3 , and R 3a  are each hydrogen. 
     
     
         31 . The method of  claim 29  or  30 , wherein X 1  and X 2  independently have a structure according to Formula IVa: 
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
         wherein m is an integer selected from 1 to 26, 
         R a , R aa , each R b , each R bb , R c , and R cc  are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, halo, trihalomethyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, aryloxy, thiohydroxy, thioalkoxy, thioaryloxy, phosphonate, phosphate, phosphinyl, sulfonyl, sulfinyl, sulfonamide, amide, carbonyl, thiocarbonyl, C-carboxy, O-carboxy, C-carbamate, N-carbamate, C-thiocarboxy, S-thiocarboxy and amino, wherein at least two of R a , R aa , R b , R bb , R c , and R cc  are optionally joined to form a four-, five- or six-membered aromatic, heteroaromatic, alicyclic or heteroalicyclic ring; 
         Z is selected from the group consisting of: 
       
       H, 
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
       
       and OR d ,
 wherein W is oxygen or sulfur; and R d  and R dd  are independently selected from hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl, wherein at least one of X 1  and X 2  comprises a Z other than hydrogen. 
 
     
     
         32 . The method of any one of  claims 29 - 31 , wherein Z is 
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
       
       and wherein W is oxygen. 
     
     
         33 . The method of any one of  claims 29 - 32 , wherein Y is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, phosphoryl choline, and phosphoryl ethanolamine. 
     
     
         34 . The method of any one of  claims 29 - 33 , wherein each of B 1 , B 2 , and B 3  is oxygen. 
     
     
         35 . The method of  claim 21 , wherein the oxidized phospholipid has a structure according to the Formula VI: 
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
         wherein A 1  is selected from the group consisting of CH 2 , CH═CH and C═O; A 2  is absent or CH 2 ; X 1  is an alkyl having from 1 to 30 carbon atoms; X 2  is 
       
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
         wherein 
         E is absent or is an alkyl chain having from 1 to 24 carbon atoms; 
         F is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, hydroxy, alkyl, alkoxy, halide, acetoxy and aryl; and 
         Z is selected from the group consisting of: 
       
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
       
       and —OR d ,
 wherein R d  is selected from H, alkyl and aryl; and 
 Y is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, aryl, phosphoric acid, phosphoryl choline, phosphoryl ethanolamine, phosphoryl serine, phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, phosphatidyl serine, phosphatidyl cardiolipin, phosphatidyl inositol, phosphoryl cardiolipin, phosphoryl inositol, ethylphosphocholine, phosphorylmethanol, phosphorylethanol, phosphorylpropanol, phosphorylbutanol, phosphorylethanolamine-N-lactose, phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(propylene glycol)], phosphoinositol-4-phosphate, phosphoinositol-4,5-bisposphate, pyrophosphate, phosphoethanolamine-diethylenetriamine-pentaacetate, dinitrophenyl-phosphoethanolamine, phosphoglycerol. 
 
     
     
         36 . The method of  claim 35 , wherein X 1  is alkyl having from 10 to 30 carbon atoms. 
     
     
         37 . The method of  claim 35  or  36 , wherein E is alkyl having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms. 
     
     
         38 . The method of any one of  claims 35 - 37 , wherein Y is phosphocholine. 
     
     
         39 . The method of any one of  claims 21 - 38 , wherein the oxidized phospholipid is 
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
       
       or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 
     
     
         40 . The method of any one of  claims 21 - 39 , wherein the oxidized phospholipid is 
       
         
           
           
               
               
           
         
         or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 
       
     
     
         41 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 11 , wherein the MOSPD2 inhibitor is a tocopherol, a triterpene, a vitamin A, or a phospholipid. 
     
     
         42 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 41 , wherein the cancer is selected from the group consisting of bladder cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer, rectal cancer, kidney cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, esophageal cancer, gall-bladder cancer, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, stomach cancer, cervical cancer, thyroid cancer, prostate cancer, skin cancer, hematopoietic cancer, cancer of mesenchymal origin, cancer of central or peripheral nervous system, endometrial cancer, head and neck cancer, glioblastoma, and malignant ascites. 
     
     
         43 . The method of  claim 42 , wherein the cancer is a small-cell lung cancer or a non-small-cell lung cancer. 
     
     
         44 . The method of  claim 42 , wherein the cancer is skin cancer, wherein the skin cancer is selected from the group consisting of squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell cancer, melanoma, dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans, Merkel cell carcinoma, Kaposi's sarcoma, keratoacanthoma, spindle cell tumors, sebaceous carcinomas, microcystic adnexal carcinoma, Paget's disease of the breast, atypical fibroxanthoma, leiomyosarcoma, and angiosarcoma. 
     
     
         45 . The method of  claim 42 , wherein the cancer is a hematopoietic cancer of lymphoid lineage. 
     
     
         46 . The method of  claim 45 , wherein the hematopoietic cancer of lymphoid lineage is selected from the group consisting of leukemia, acute lymphocytic leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, B-cell lymphoma, T-cell-lymphoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, hairy cell lymphoma and Burkitt's lymphoma. 
     
     
         47 . The method of  claim 42 , wherein the cancer is a hematopoietic cancer of myeloid lineage. 
     
     
         48 . The method of  claim 47 , wherein the hematopoietic cancer of myeloid lineage is selected from the group consisting of acute myelogenous leukemia, chronic myelogenous leukemia, myelodysplastic syndrome, and promyelocytic leukemia. 
     
     
         49 . The method of  claim 42 , wherein the cancer is a cancer of mesenchymal origin selected from the group consisting of fibrosarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, soft tissue sarcoma, and bone sarcoma. 
     
     
         50 . The method of  claim 42 , wherein the cancer is a cancer of the central or peripheral nervous system selected from the group consisting of astrocytoma, neuroblastoma, glioma, and schwannomas. 
     
     
         51 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 41 , wherein the cancer is selected from the group consisting of anal cancer, bone cancer, gastrointestinal stomal cancer, gestational trophoblastic disease, Hodgkin's lymphoma, Kaposi sarcoma, keratoacanthoma, malignant mesothelioma, multicentric castleman disease, multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms, myeloproliferative neoplasms, neuroblastoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, osteosarcoma, ovarian, fallopian tube, or primary peritoneal cancer, penile cancer, retinoblastoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, seminoma, soft tissue sarcoma, stomach (gastric) cancer, testicular cancer, teratocarcinoma, thyroid follicular cancer, vaginal cancer, vulvar cancer, Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney cancers, and xeroderma pigmentosum. 
     
     
         52 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 41 , wherein the cancer is selected from the group consisting of bladder cancer, brain cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer, esophageal cancer, lung cancer, skin cancer, tongue cancer, kidney cancer, and hepatic cancer. 
     
     
         53 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 52 , wherein MOSPD2 is upregulated in the cancer cell compared to its non-cancerous counterpart. 
     
     
         54 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 53 , wherein migration of the cancer cell is inhibited. 
     
     
         55 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 54 , wherein ERK phosphorylation in the cancer cell is inhibited. 
     
     
         56 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 55 , wherein AKT phosphorylation in the cancer cell is inhibited. 
     
     
         57 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 56 , wherein FAK phosphorylation in the cancer cell is inhibited. 
     
     
         58 . The method of any one of  claims 1 - 6  and  12 - 57 , wherein the subject is a human. 
     
     
         59 . The method of any one of  claims 4 ,  5 , and  11 - 58 , where in the anticancer drug is selected from the group consisting of Abiraterone Acetate, Abitrexate (Methotrexate), Abraxane (Paclitaxel Albumin-stabilized Nanoparticle Formulation), ABVD, ABVE, ABVE-PC, AC, AC-T, Adcetris (Brentuximab Vedotin), ADE, Ado-Trastuzumab Emtansine, Adriamycin (Doxorubicin Hydrochloride), Adrucil (Fluorouracil), Afatinib Dimaleate, Afinitor (Everolimus), Akynzeo (Netupitant and Palonosetron Hydrochloride), Aldara (Imiquimod), Aldesleukin, Alemtuzumab, Alimta (Pemetrexed Disodium), Aloxi (Palonosetron Hydrochloride), Ambochlorin (Chlorambucil), Amboclorin (Chlorambucil), Aminolevulinic Acid, Anastrozole, Aprepitant, Aredia (Pamidronate Disodium), Arimidex (Anastrozole), Aromasin (Exemestane), Arranon (Nelarabine), Arsenic Trioxide, Arzerra (Ofatumumab), Asparaginase  Erwinia chrysanthemi , Avastin (Bevacizumab), Axitinib, Azacitidine, BEACOPP, Becenum (Carmustine), Beleodaq (Belinostat), Belinostat, Bendamustine Hydrochloride, BEP, Bevacizumab, Bexarotene, Bexxar (Tositumomab and I 131 Iodine Tositumomab), Bicalutamide, BiCNU (Carmustine), Bleomycin, Blinatumomab, Blincyto (Blinatumomab), Bortezomib, Bosulif (Bosutinib), Bosutinib, Brentuximab Vedotin, Busulfan, Busulfex (Busulfan), Cabazitaxel, Cabozantinib-S-Malate, CAF, Campath (Alemtuzumab), Camptosar (Irinotecan Hydrochloride), Capecitabine, CAPDX, Carboplatin, Carboplatin-Taxol, Carfilzomib, Carmubris (Carmustine), Carmustine, Carmustine Implant, Casodex (Bicalutamide), CeeNU (Lomustine), Ceritinib, Cerubidine (Daunorubicin Hydrochloride), Cervarix (Recombinant HPV Bivalent Vaccine), Cetuximab, Chlorambucil, Chlorambucil-Prednisone, CHOP, Cisplatin, Clafen (Cyclophosphamide), Clofarabine, CMF,Cometriq (Cabozantinib-S-Malate), COPP, COPP-ABV, Cosmegen (Dactinomycin), Crizotinib, CVP, Cyclophosphamide, Cyfos (Ifosfamide), Cyramza (Ramucirumab), Cytarabine, Cytarabine, Liposomal, Cytosar-U (Cytarabine), Cytoxan (Cyclophosphamide), Dabrafenib, Dacarbazine, Dacogen (Decitabine), Dactinomycin, Dasatinib, Daunorubicin Hydrochloride, Decitabine, Degarelix, Denileukin Diftitox, Denosumab, DepoCyt (Liposomal Cytarabine), DepoFoam (Liposomal Cytarabine), Dexrazoxane Hydrochloride, Dinutuximab, Docetaxel, Doxil (Doxorubicin Hydrochloride Liposome), Doxorubicin Hydrochloride, Doxorubicin Hydrochloride Liposome, Dox-SL (Doxorubicin Hydrochloride Liposome), DTIC-Dome (Dacarbazine), Efudex (Fluorouracil), Elitek (Rasburicase), Ellence (Epirubicin Hydrochloride), Eloxatin (Oxaliplatin), Eltrombopag Olamine, Emend (Aprepitant), Enzalutamide, Epirubicin Hydrochloride, EPOCH, Erbitux (Cetuximab), Eribulin Mesylate, Erivedge (Vismodegib), Erlotinib Hydrochloride, Erwinaze (Asparaginase  Erwinia chrysanthemi ), Etopophos (Etoposide Phosphate), Etoposide, Etoposide Phosphate, Evacet (Doxorubicin Hydrochloride Liposome), Everolimus, Evista (Raloxifene Hydrochloride), Exemestane, Fareston (Toremifene), Farydak (Panobinostat), Faslodex (Fulvestrant), FEC, Femara (Letrozole), Filgrastim, Fludara (Fludarabine Phosphate), Fludarabine Phosphate, Fluoroplex (Fluorouracil), Fluorouracil, Folex (Methotrexate), Folex PFS (Methotrexate), Folfiri, Folfiri-Bevacizumab, Folfiri-Cetuximab, Folfirinox, Folflox, Folotyn (Pralatrexate), FU-LV, Fulvestrant, Gardasil (Recombinant HPV Quadrivalent Vaccine), Gardasil 9 (Recombinant HPV Nonavalent Vaccine), Gazyva (Obinutuzumab), Gefitinib, Gemcitabine Hydrochloride, Gemcitabine-Cisplatin, Gemcitabine-Oxaliplatin, Gemtuzumab Ozogamicin, Gemzar (Gemcitabine Hydrochloride), Gilotrif (Afatinib Dimaleate), Gleevec (Imatinib Mesylate), Gliadel (Carmustine Implant), Gliadel wafer (Carmustine Implant), Glucarpidase, Goserelin Acetate, Halaven (Eribulin Mesylate), Herceptin (Trastuzumab), HPV Bivalent Vaccine, Recombinant, HPV Nonavalent Vaccine, Recombinant, HPV Quadrivalent Vaccine, Recombinant, Hycamtin (Topotecan Hydrochloride), Hyper-CVAD, Ibrance (Palbociclib), Ibritumomab Tiuxetan, Ibrutinib, ICE, Iclusig (Ponatinib Hydrochloride), Idamycin (Idarubicin Hydrochloride), Idarubicin Hydrochloride, Idelalisib, Ifex (Ifosfamide), Ifosfamide, Ifosfamidum (Ifosfamide), Imatinib Mesylate, Imbruvica (Ibrutinib), Imiquimod, Inlyta (Axitinib), Intron A (Recombinant Interferon Alfa-2b), Iodine 131 Tositumomab and Tositumomab, Ipilimumab, Iressa (Gefitinib), Irinotecan Hydrochloride, Istodax (Romidepsin), Ixabepilone, Ixempra (Ixabepilone), Jakafi (Ruxolitinib Phosphate), Jevtana (Cabazitaxel), Kadcyla (Ado-Trastuzumab Emtansine), Keoxifene (Raloxifene Hydrochloride), Kepivance (Palifermin), Keytruda (Pembrolizumab), Kyprolis (Carfilzomib), Lanreotide Acetate, Lapatinib Ditosylate, Lenalidomide, Lenvatinib Mesylate, Lenvima (Lenvatinib Mesylate), Letrozole, Leucovorin Calcium, Leukeran (Chlorambucil), Leuprolide Acetate, Levulan (Aminolevulinic Acid), Linfolizin (Chlorambucil), LipoDox (Doxorubicin Hydrochloride Liposome), Liposomal Cytarabine, Lomustine, Lupron (Leuprolide Acetate), Lupron Depot (Leuprolide Acetate), Lupron Depot-Ped (Leuprolide Acetate), Lupron Depot-3 Month (Leuprolide Acetate), Lupron Depot-4 Month (Leuprolide Acetate), Lynparza (Olaparib), Marqibo (Vincristine Sulfate Liposome), Matulane (Procarbazine Hydrochloride), Mechlorethamine Hydrochloride, Megace (Megestrol Acetate), Megestrol Acetate, Mekinist (Trametinib), Mercaptopurine, Mesna, Mesnex (Mesna), Methazolastone (Temozolomide), Methotrexate, Methotrexate LPF (Methotrexate), Mexate (Methotrexate), Mexate-AQ (Methotrexate), Mitomycin C, Mitoxantrone Hydrochloride, Mitozytrex (Mitomycin C), MOPP, Mozobil (Plerixafor), Mustargen (Mechlorethamine Hydrochloride), Mutamycin (Mitomycin C), Myleran (Busulfan), Mylosar (Azacitidine), Mylotarg (Gemtuzumab Ozogamicin), Nanoparticle Paclitaxel (Paclitaxel Albumin-stabilized Nanoparticle Formulation), Navelbine (Vinorelbine Tartrate), Nelarabine, Neosar (Cyclophosphamide), Netupitant and Palonosetron Hydrochloride, Neupogen (Filgrastim), Nexavar (Sorafenib Tosylate), Nilotinib, Nivolumab, Nolvadex (Tamoxifen Citrate), Nplate (Romiplostim), Obinutuzumab, OEPA, Ofatumumab, OFF, Olaparib, Omacetaxine Mepesuccinate, Oncaspar (Pegaspargase), Ontak (Denileukin Diftitox), Opdivo (Nivolumab), OPPA, Oxaliplatin, Paclitaxel, Paclitaxel Albumin-stabilized Nanoparticle Formulation, PAD, Palbociclib, Palifermin, Palonosetron Hydrochloride, Pamidronate Disodium, Panitumumab, Panobinostat, Paraplat (Carboplatin), Paraplatin (Carboplatin), Pazopanib Hydrochloride, Pegaspargase, Peginterferon Alfa-2b, PEG-Intron (Peginterferon Alfa-2b), Pembrolizumab, Pemetrexed Disodium, Perj eta (Pertuzumab), Pertuzumab, Platinol (Cisplatin), Platinol-AQ (Cisplatin), Plerixafor, Pomalidomide, Pomalyst (Pomalidomide), Ponatinib Hydrochloride, Pralatrexate, Prednisone, Procarbazine Hydrochloride, Proleukin (Aldesleukin), Prolia (Denosumab), Promacta (Eltrombopag Olamine), Provenge (Sipuleucel-T), Purinethol (Mercaptopurine), Purixan (Mercaptopurine), Radium 223 Dichloride, Raloxifene Hydrochloride, Ramucirumab, Rasburicase, R-CHOP, R-CVP, Recombinant Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Bivalent Vaccine, Recombinant Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Nonavalent Vaccine, Recombinant Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Quadrivalent Vaccine, Recombinant Interferon Alfa-2b, Regorafenib, R-EPOCH, Revlimid (Lenalidomide), Rheumatrex (Methotrexate), Rituxan (Rituximab), Rituximab, Romidepsin, Romiplostim, Rubidomycin (Daunorubicin Hydrochloride), Ruxolitinib Phosphate, Sclerosol Intrapleural Aerosol (Talc), Siltuximab, Sipuleucel-T, Somatuline Depot (Lanreotide Acetate), Sorafenib Tosylate, Sprycel (Dasatinib), STANFORD V, Sterile Talc Powder (Talc), Steritalc (Talc), Stivarga (Regorafenib), Sunitinib Malate, Sutent (Sunitinib Malate), Sylatron (Peginterferon Alfa-2b), Sylvant (Siltuximab), Synovir (Thalidomide), Synribo (Omacetaxine Mepesuccinate), TAC, Tafinlar (Dabrafenib), Talc, Tamoxifen Citrate, Tarabine PFS (Cytarabine), Tarceva (Erlotinib Hydrochloride), Targretin (Bexarotene), Tasigna (Nilotinib), Taxol (Paclitaxel), Taxotere (Docetaxel), Temodar (Temozolomide), Temozolomide, Temsirolimus, Thalidomide, Thalomid (Thalidomide), Thiotepa, Toposar (Etoposide), Topotecan Hydrochloride, Toremifene, Torisel (Temsirolimus), Tositumomab and I 131 Iodine Tositumomab, Totect (Dexrazoxane Hydrochloride), TPF, Trametinib, Trastuzumab, Treanda (Bendamustine Hydrochloride), Trisenox (Arsenic Trioxide), Tykerb (Lapatinib Ditosylate), Unituxin (Dinutuximab), Vandetanib, VAMP, Vectibix (Panitumumab), VeIP, Velban (Vinblastine Sulfate), Velcade (Bortezomib), Velsar (Vinblastine Sulfate), Vemurafenib, VePesid (Etoposide), Viadur (Leuprolide Acetate), Vidaza (Azacitidine), Vinblastine Sulfate, Vincasar PFS (Vincristine Sulfate), Vincristine Sulfate, Vincristine Sulfate Liposome, Vinorelbine Tartrate, VIP, Vismodegib, Voraxaze (Glucarpidase), Vorinostat, Votrient (Pazopanib Hydrochloride), Wellcovorin (Leucovorin Calcium), Xalkori (Crizotinib), Xeloda (Capecitabine), XELIRI, XELOX, Xgeva (Denosumab), Xofigo (Radium 223 Dichloride), Xtandi (Enzalutamide), Yervoy (Ipilimumab), Zaltrap (Ziv-Aflibercept), Zelboraf (Vemurafenib), Zevalin (Ibritumomab Tiuxetan), Zinecard (Dexrazoxane Hydrochloride), Ziv-Aflibercept, Zoladex (Goserelin Acetate), Zoledronic Acid, Zolinza (Vorinostat), Zometa (Zoledronic Acid), Zydelig (Idelalisib), Zykadia (Ceritinib), and Zytiga (Abiraterone Acetate). 
     
     
         60 . An isolated polypeptide that inhibits MOSPD2 expressed by a cancer cell. 
     
     
         61 . The isolated polypeptide of  claim 60 , wherein the polypeptide (i) specifically binds to a MOSPD2 polypeptide, (ii) specifically binds to a ligand of a MOSPD2 polypeptide, (iii) is an antisera raised against a MOSPD2 polypeptide, (iv) is a soluble MOSPD2 polypeptide, or (v) is a soluble MOSPD2 polypeptide comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of an extracellular domain of a MOSPD2 polypeptide. 
     
     
         62 . The isolated polypeptide of  claim 61 , wherein the polypeptide is an antibody that specifically binds to a MOSPD2 polypeptide. 
     
     
         63 . The isolated polypeptide of  claim 61 , wherein the polypeptide is an antigen binding fragment of an antibody that specifically binds to a MOSPD2 polypeptide. 
     
     
         64 . The isolated polypeptide of  claim 62 , wherein the antibody is a polyclonal, monoclonal, murine, human, humanized, or chimeric antibody. 
     
     
         65 . The isolated polypeptide of  claim 63 , wherein the antigen binding fragment is a Fab, Fab′, F(ab′) 2 , Fv, scFv, sdFv fragment, VH domain, or VL domain. 
     
     
         66 . The isolated polypeptide of any one of  claims 60 - 65 , wherein the MOSPD2 polypeptide has a sequence at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs:1-4. 
     
     
         67 . The isolated polypeptide of any one of  claims 60 - 65 , wherein the MOSPD2 polypeptide is encoded by a nucleotide sequence at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs:5-8. 
     
     
         68 . A pharmaceutical composition comprising the isolated polypeptide of any one of  claims 60 - 67 , and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 
     
     
         69 . A pharmaceutical composition comprising an isolated polypeptide that inhibits MOSPD2 expressed by a cancer cell, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 
     
     
         70 . The pharmaceutical composition of  claim 68  or  69 , suitable for systemic or local administration. 
     
     
         71 . The pharmaceutical composition of  claim 68  or  69 , suitable for nasal, oral, intra-peritoneal, or intra-tumor administration. 
     
     
         72 . The pharmaceutical composition of  claim 68  or  69 , suitable for intravenous administration, intramuscular administration, or subcutaneous administration. 
     
     
         73 . The isolated polypeptide of any one of  claims 60 - 67  or the pharmaceutical composition of any one of  claims 62 - 68 , wherein the cancer is selected from the group consisting of bladder cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer, rectal cancer, kidney cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, esophageal cancer, gall-bladder cancer, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, stomach cancer, cervical cancer, thyroid cancer, prostate cancer, skin cancer, hematopoietic cancer, cancer of mesenchymal origin, cancer of central or peripheral nervous system, endometrial cancer, head and neck cancer, glioblastoma, and malignant ascites. 
     
     
         74 . The isolated polypeptide or pharmaceutical composition of  claim 73 , wherein the cancer is a small-cell lung cancer or a non-small-cell lung cancer. 
     
     
         75 . The isolated polypeptide or pharmaceutical composition of  claim 73 , wherein the cancer is skin cancer, wherein the skin cancer is selected from the group consisting of squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell cancer, melanoma, dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans, Merkel cell carcinoma, Kaposi's sarcoma, keratoacanthoma, spindle cell tumors, sebaceous carcinomas, microcystic adnexal carcinoma, Paget's disease of the breast, atypical fibroxanthoma, leiomyosarcoma, and angiosarcoma. 
     
     
         76 . The isolated polypeptide or pharmaceutical composition of  claim 73 , wherein the cancer is a hematopoietic cancer of lymphoid lineage. 
     
     
         77 . The isolated polypeptide or pharmaceutical composition of  claim 76 , wherein the hematopoietic cancer of lymphoid lineage is selected from the group consisting of leukemia, acute lymphocytic leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, B-cell lymphoma, T-cell-lymphoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, hairy cell lymphoma, and Burkitt's lymphoma. 
     
     
         78 . The isolated polypeptide or pharmaceutical composition of  claim 73 , wherein the cancer is a hematopoietic cancer of myeloid lineage. 
     
     
         79 . The isolated polypeptide or pharmaceutical composition of  claim 78 , wherein the hematopoietic cancer of myeloid lineage is selected from the group consisting of acute myelogenous leukemia, chronic myelogenous leukemia, myelodysplastic syndrome, and promyelocytic leukemia. 
     
     
         80 . The isolated polypeptide or pharmaceutical composition of  claim 73 , wherein the cancer is a cancer of mesenchymal origin selected from the group consisting of fibrosarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, soft tissue sarcoma, and bone sarcoma. 
     
     
         81 . The isolated polypeptide or pharmaceutical composition of  claim 73 , wherein the cancer is a cancer of the central or peripheral nervous system selected from the group consisting of astrocytoma, neuroblastoma, glioma, and schwannomas. 
     
     
         82 . The isolated polypeptide of any one of  claims 60 - 67  or the pharmaceutical composition of any one of  claims 68 - 72 , wherein the cancer is selected from the group consisting of anal cancer, bone cancer, gastrointestinal stomal cancer, gestational trophoblastic disease, Hodgkin's lymphoma, Kaposi sarcoma, keratoacanthoma, malignant mesothelioma, multicentric castleman disease, multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms, myeloproliferative neoplasms, neuroblastoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, osteosarcoma, ovarian, fallopian tube, or primary peritoneal cancer, penile cancer, retinoblastoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, seminoma, soft tissue sarcoma, stomach (gastric) cancer, testicular cancer, teratocarcinoma, thyroid follicular cancer, vaginal cancer, vulvar cancer, Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney cancers, and xeroderma pigmentosum. 
     
     
         83 . The isolated polypeptide of any one of  claims 60 - 67  or the pharmaceutical composition of any one of  claims 68 - 72 , wherein the cancer is selected from the group consisting of bladder cancer, brain cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer, esophageal cancer, lung cancer, skin cancer, tongue cancer, kidney cancer, and hepatic cancer. 
     
     
         84 . An isolated antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof that specifically binds to MOSPD2. 
     
     
         85 . An isolated antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof that binds to MOSPD2 with an equilibrium dissociation constant (K D ) of from about 10 −6  M to about 10 −12  M. 
     
     
         86 . The isolated antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof of  claim 84  or  85 , wherein the MOSPD2 is human MOSPD2. 
     
     
         87 . The isolated antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof of any one of  claims 84 - 86 , wherein the antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof specifically binds to one or more of the following amino acid regions of human MOSPD2, numbered according to SEQ ID NO:1: about 508 to about 517, about 501 to about 514, about 233 to about 241, about 509 to about 517, about 212 to about 221, about 13 to about 24, about 505 to about 517, about 505 to about 514, about 89 to about 100, about 506 to about 517, about 233 to about 245, about 504 to about 514, about 128 to about 136, about 218 to about 226, about 15 to about 24, about 83 to about 96, about 42 to about 50, about 462 to 474, about 340 to about 351, about 504 to about 517, about 462 to about 470, about 327 to about 337, about 21 to about 32, about 217 to about 226, about 510 to about 517, about 178 to about 190, about 497 to about 509, about 504 to about 516, about 64 to about 77, about 504 to about 515, about 147 to about 159, about 503 to about 515, about 88 to about 97, about 208 to about 218, about 178 to about 191, about 502 to about 515, about 503 to about 516, about 497 to about 505, about 500 to about 509, about 189 to about 202, about 189 to about 197, about 505 to about 516, about 1 to about 63, about 82 to about 239, about 93 to about 234, about 327 to about 445, about 327 to about 431, and about 497 to about 517. 
     
     
         88 . The isolated antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof of any one of  claims 84 - 86 , wherein the antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof specifically binds to one or more of the following amino acid regions of human MOSPD2, numbered according to SEQ ID NO:1: about 505 to about 515, about 500 to about 515, about 230 to about 240, about 510 to about 520, about 210 to about 220, about 15 to about 25, about 505 to about 520, about 505 to about 515, about 90 to about 100, about 505 to about 525, about 230 to about 245, about 505 to about 510, about 130 to about 140, about 220 to about 230, about 15 to about 30, about 80 to about 95, about 40 to about 50, about 460 to about 475, about 340 to about 350, about 500 to about 515, about 460 to about 470, about 325 to about 335, about 20 to about 35, about 215 to about 225, about 510 to about 520, about 175 to about 190, about 500 to about 510, about 505 to about 530, about 60 to about 75, about 500 to about 520, about 145 to about 160, about 502 to about 515, about 85 to about 100, about 205 to about 220, about 175 to about 190, about 500 to about 505, about 500 to about 525, about 495 to about 505, about 495 to about 510, about 190 to about 200, about 190 to about 198, about 502 to about 515, about 1 to about 60, about 80 to about 240, about 90 to about 235, about 330 to about 445, about 330 to about 430, and about 495 to about 515. 
     
     
         89 . The isolated antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof of any one of  claims 84 - 88 , wherein the antibody is an IgG, IgM, IgE, IgA or IgD molecule, or is derived therefrom. 
     
     
         90 . The isolated antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof of any one of  claims 84 - 89 , wherein the antibody comprises an Fc region. 
     
     
         89 . A pharmaceutical composition comprising the antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof of any one of  claims 84 - 88 , and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 
     
     
         90 . A method of treating or preventing metastasis of a cancer cell, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of the antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof of any one of  claims 84 - 88  or the pharmaceutical composition of  claim 89 . 
     
     
         91 . A method of inhibiting or preventing one or more activities in or of a cancer cell, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of the antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof of any one of  claims 84 - 88  or the pharmaceutical composition of  claim 89 , wherein the one or more activities is one or more of: MOSPD2 expression, cancer cell migration, monocyte migration associated with tumor growth, a chemokine signaling pathway, a growth factor signaling pathway, EGF Receptor phosphorylation, ERK phosphorylation, AKT phosphorylation, and FAK phosphorylation. 
     
     
         92 . A method of treating or preventing a cancer, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of the antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof of any one of  claims 84 - 88  or the pharmaceutical composition of  claim 89 . 
     
     
         93 . A method of treating or preventing a metastatic cancer, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of the antibody or antigen binding fragment thereof of any one of  claims 84 - 88  or the pharmaceutical composition of  claim 89 . 
     
     
         94 . A method for the prediction, diagnosis, or prognosis of cancer or cancer metastasis in a subject, which comprises determining the expression level of MOSPD2 in a sample of the subject. 
     
     
         95 . A method for the prediction, diagnosis, or prognosis of tumor progression or invasiveness in a subject, which comprises determining the expression level of MOSPD2 in a sample of the subject. 
     
     
         96 . The method of  claim 94  or  95 , wherein the expression level of MOSPD2 is the level of MOSPD2 gene expression. 
     
     
         97 . The method of  claim 94  or  95 , wherein the expression level of MOSPD2 is the level of MOSPD2 protein expression. 
     
     
         98 . An in vitro method for the prediction, diagnosis, or prognosis of cancer in a subject, which comprises (i) determining or quantifying the expression level of MOSPD2 in a sample of the subject, and (ii) comparing the expression level obtained in step (i) with a control or reference value, wherein an increased expression level of MOSPD2 with respect to the control or reference value is indicative of cancer, an increased risk of developing cancer, or a poor cancer prognosis. 
     
     
         99 . An in vitro method for the prediction, diagnosis, or prognosis of cancer metastasis in a subject, which comprises (i) determining or quantifying the expression level of MOSPD2 in a sample of the subject, and (ii) comparing the expression level obtained in step (i) with a control or reference value, wherein an increased expression level of MOSPD2 with respect to the control or reference value is indicative of cancer metastasis, an increased risk of cancer metastasis, or a poor cancer metastasis prognosis. 
     
     
         100 . An in vitro method for the prediction, diagnosis, or prognosis of tumor progression or invasiveness in a subject, which comprises (i) determining or quantifying the expression level of MOSPD2 in a sample of the subject, and (ii) comparing the expression level obtained in step (i) with a control or reference value, wherein an increased expression level of MOSPD2 with respect to the control or reference value is indicative of tumor progression or invasiveness, an increased risk of tumor progression or invasiveness, or a poor tumor progression or invasiveness prognosis. 
     
     
         101 . The method of any one of  claims 98 - 100 , wherein if MOSPD2 expression is present in the sample of the subject, then the subject has cancer, cancer metastasis, tumor progression or invasiveness, an increased risk of cancer, an increased risk of cancer metastasis, an increased risk of tumor progression or invasiveness, a poor cancer prognosis, a poor cancer metastasis prognosis, or a poor tumor progression or invasiveness prognosis. 
     
     
         102 . The method of any one of  claims 98 - 100 , wherein if MOSPD2 expression is present in the sample of the subject in an amount greater than MOSPD2 expression of the control or reference value, then the subject has cancer, cancer metastasis, tumor progression or invasiveness, an increased risk of cancer, an increased risk of cancer metastasis, an increased risk of tumor progression or invasiveness, a poor cancer prognosis, a poor cancer metastasis prognosis, or a poor tumor progression or invasiveness prognosis. 
     
     
         103 . The method of any one of  claims 98 - 102 , further comprising one or more of the following steps:
 instructing a laboratory to quantify the expression level of MOSPD2 in the sample;   obtaining a report of the expression level of MOSPD2 in the sample from a laboratory; and/or   administering a therapeutically effective amount of an inhibitor of MOSPD2 to the subject.   
     
     
         104 . The method of any one of  claims 98 - 103 , wherein the sample is a tissue biopsy, tumor biopsy, or blood sample from the subject. 
     
     
         105 . The method of any one of  claims 98 - 104 , wherein the control or reference value is the expression level of MOSPD2 in normal tissue or normal adjacent tissue (NAT). 
     
     
         106 . The method of any one of  claims 98 - 104 , wherein the control or reference value is no detectable MOSDP2 expression or no significant MOSPD2 expression. 
     
     
         107 . A method for treating a cancer or cancer metastasis responsive to an inhibitor of MOSPD2, in a subject, which comprises (i) determining the expression level of MOSPD2 in the subject, and when the expression level is determined to be greater than that of a control or reference value, (ii) administering, to the subject, a therapeutically effective amount of an inhibitor of MOSPD2. 
     
     
         108 . A method for preventing or treating a MOSPD2 expressing tumor, in a subject, which comprises administering a therapeutically effective amount of an inhibitor of MOSPD2. 
     
     
         109 . A method for preventing or treating a tumor having MOSPD2 expressing tumor associated macrophages, in a subject, which comprises administering a therapeutically effective amount of an inhibitor of MOSPD2.